Medieval Europe †Papal Reformation Essay

Since the Council of Nicaea called in the fourth century by Constantine to the early eleventh century, the Church was never established as a free standing institution. For over eight hundred years the Church had been under the authority of secular powers. Charlemagne and the Carolingians emperors saw themselves as the ones to maintain the Church materially, organizationally, and spiritually, while the pope was only an example of ideal Christian living. Social deterioration led to the corruption of the Church and its offices; simony being the biggest problem. The papacy itself was corrupted by simony and Roman politics. While reform had been taking place in the local levels for some time, the papacy was the last part of the Church to be reformed. The papacy reformation came about through three major popes: Leo IX (1049-1054), Nicholas II (1059-1061), and Gregory VII (1073-1085). The actions by these popes in the eleventh century would root out the corruption within the church and caus e conflict between the secular authorities and the papacy resulting in the separation and establishing of the Church as a power on its own. After numerous corrupt popes, Leo IX is considered to be the pope that started the papacy reformation. Ironically, he was appointed pope by his cousin Emperor Henry III. After being coroneted, Leo spent less than six months in Rome traveling through Italy, Germany, France, and as far as Hungary ( Blum, 485). According to Backman, â€Å"Leo recognized two things from the very start: first, the papacy could not be properly reformed so long as it remained mired in Roman factional politics; and second, the papacy needed to be seen by the faithful in order to secure the gains of the reform† (Backman, 268). Leo was literally the first pope to be seen by most Christians (Backman, 268), and he wanted to â€Å"project an image of the papacy in action† (Blum, 485). For a long time the title of pope was just a name without any meaning or power; however, Leo would change that with his travels. Leo’s great accomplishments were abolishing simony, help ending the practice of cl erical marriage, and improving the clergies training and education. Pope Leo IX, through his travels had plans of establishing his authority while also rooting out corruption still in local churches. â€Å"Leo staged large-scale Masses, pronounced Peace and Truce decrees, and offered all the faithful the opportunity to air grievances about their local church and ecclesiastical leaders† (Backman, 269). Clergy that had obtained their position by way of simony were given the chance to retain their office only if the confessed their faults and swore publicly to dedicate themselves to the reformed Church. According to Backman these acts were performed in public for two reasons: First, the people themselves got to hear the confession of their clergy, and second, the pope got the pleasure of having the faithful see the priest, bishops, and archbishops kneeling before Leo, in other words, used the reform-celebration itself as a means for establishing papal authority over the episcopacy. Henceforth, everyone understood that the bishops served as the legitimate leaders of the Church because the Holy Father himself had publically bestowed their office upon them. The papacy now stood at the head of a new hierarchy and determined its legitimacy. 269 The last major contributing act Leo had towards the reformation was the creation of the College of Cardinals. Leo saw that the Church was not intellectually able to deal with issue it was faced with. He created a body of advisors for the papacy that included theologians, lawyers, philosophers, historians, scientists, and diplomats. These handpicked advisors would lend expert council to the pope on settling and resolving doctrinal issues never really solved by the Church. One of the issues they dealt with was celibacy for the clergy; this would not be settled until Pope Nicholas II. The papacy was now the decision making center on doctrinal issues for the Church. Leo IX was a major turning point for the Church, but unfortunately he would not finish what he started. The next pope to further the papal reformation was Nicholas II. Pope Nicholas II built upon what Leo IX had already done. Nicholas and a council produced the Lateran synod of April 1059. The synod ended clerical marriage and established clergy celibacy. It also added to the strict prevention of simony. Also with the synod, Nicholas and the council made two major decisions that would shape the papacy up until today. The first of these decisions was to condemn the practice of lay investiture. â€Å"The ritual by which a lay prince â€Å"invested† a priest or bishop with the insignia of his office suggested that the ecclesiastical authority was subordinate to the secular† (Backman, 270). The papacy now condemned this seeing as the reforming popes were trying to establish the Church as an entity on its own. The Church wanted to control everything about itself and completely cut off any secular ties trying to control it. The second major decision Nicholas and the council made was mad in the Papal Election Decree of 1059. This was to ensure no pope could ever be placed in power by a secular ruler but only elected by the College of Cardinals. Backman describes it as this: †¦for all eternity the only way for any individual to become the legitimate pontiff of the Holy Catholic Church was to be freely elected to the position by the College of Cardinals. This decree removed the Holy See from the clutched of the Roman magnates, but it also declared the papacy’s independence from the imperial power. 270 These actions changed the state’s authority over the church that had been present since Constantine. When Henry IV came to power in 1056, he did not like the actions taken by the Church and trying to separate from his authority. The tension between the papacy and secular powers came to a high during the pontificate of Pope Gregory VII. Now Gregory VII had begun his career in Rome during the pontificate of Leo IX as Leo’s â€Å"‘secretary of state’ and author of his important papers† (Blum, 485). So Gregory had been around since the beginning of the papal reformation. His actions and policies would lead to the biggest conflict between the Church and State during this reformation. After dealing with carious rebellions, Henry IV’s resent meant lead him to prepare to attack Rome and deal with the papacy’s action. Henry wanted to show that he had supremacy and was the ruler of both Church and State. Before Henry could attack, Gregory responded with a declaration called the Dictatus Papae. This was a list of twenty-seven single sentence decrees about papal power. Gaudemet defines them as, â€Å"lapidary and unrestrained terms the universal power of the pope; his authority over bishops, clerics and councils, and his right to depose the emperor, to certify every canonical text, to make law and to deliver judgment from which there is no appeal† (Gaudemet, 470). Gregory was trying to establish that he alone, as the pope, had complete supremacy over both Church and the emperor. Henry took these Dictates as a direct attack on his royal rights and power. This led to both Gregory and Henry writing letters back and forth to each other with increasing t ensions with each letter. These letters led to both of them excommunicating and deposing the other from office at the end of 1076. The excommunicating of each other would lead to a major event in establishing supremacy to the pope. Gregory, being the pope, was still head of the Church, and Henry found himself still excommunicated. Henry and his advisor devised a plan to get him forgiven and restored into the Church. Being the pope meant that Gregory was a priest, and he would have to forgive a penitent sinner. Gregory was caught off guard at his castle in Canossa, Italy by Henry’s arrival and asking of forgiveness. This had made Gregory furious, but he had to forgive him. Gregory used this to his advantage, showing that he had supremacy over the emperor. Gregory made Henry stand outside his window barefoot wearing penitential rags for three days begging for forgiveness and pleading for restoration. While this move by Henry helped him with his enemies and restored him back into the Church, this move also hurt him. This move now shifted the supremacy towards the pope. The emperor was now seen as submissive to the pope and had to do what the pope said. While more conflicts happened between Gregory VII and Henry IV, the investiture struggle would not end with them. It was officially ended in 1122 with Henry IV’s son, Henry the V, and Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124) with the Concordat of Worms. This allowed ecclesiastical appointment to be made by the Church alone but also allowed secular rulers to participate with the lands and appurtenances supplementary to the positions. The issue of papal supremacy over imperial supremacy was circumvented, only to erupt again in centuries later. While Urban II (1088-1099) was able to finalize the reform of the Church during his pontificate, it wasn’t really until the end of the twelfth century that the Church reform came to a conclusion. Gregory VII and the popes following openly proclaimed the Church’s supremacy and sovereignty over the secular world. They had not only made the Church a standing institution on its own, but they had reversed the historical roles of the Church and State. Since the time of Gregory VII, the papacy had become a massive bureaucracy. The Church now had an ostentatious financial machinery, judicial system, bureaucratic structure, police network, and standing army. The Church was now its own free standing institution and would eventually become its own sovereign city-state.

Communal harmony and the question of cultural identity Essay

Harmony and the co-existence of mutli-faceted elements are the two essential ingredients of any society which seeks sustainable longevity. In a pluralistic society the question of harmonious existence of its different structural units becomes all the more pertinent. An analogy can be observed with the human body wherein the different functional systems work in unison to create a perfect coherence. Like in the human body where, different organs combine to form organ systems, in a human society smaller population groups combine to form socio-cultural entities based on particular types of identification. Unlike their biological counterparts this process of identification is not scientific and fully rational. The identification followed by human beings depends on ceratin social mores and socio-cultural guidelines which may vary from race, colour, creed, gender, class etc. to religion, region and nationality. This process is sometimes a skewed one as during the course of it a particular social grouping more than often identifies comparatively with respect to other grouping and instead of harmonising itself with other groupings differentiates with them. In case of India, the scenario is not only a peculiar one but is also intertwined with its socio-political realities. We live in a highly diversified pluralistic society wherein the number of cultural elements outscore the structural ethos provided by any type of government. The different communities in India classify themselves according to different criteria which differ temporally as well as contextually. The classification process is so well differentiatied that many of the times, people originally belonging to a particular group start associating themselves with completely different groups in different contexts e. g. people belonging to a particular caste group may associate differently with each other on the basis of economic class or educational standards. The concept of cultural identity is at the core of the Indian society. The historical formation of Indian society provides us with an idea of its multi-faceted diversity and non-inclusive cultural developments. Social history of India outlines how various indigenous as well as foreign elements reacted and intermingled in an undefined manner to produce newer cultural traits for the population to identify with. Religion, language, ideology etc. have, from time to time, given various channels for cultural identification. The communal formation of Indian society is to be observed in not a narrow way. Though religion provides the most simple way of communal identification in India, we must remeber that the idea of community is central to process of communalization

My ambitions in life Essay

My name is Jennis Dave Mirafuentes, I am now 16 years old. Were all 5 children in my father side, why I say in my father side only? It is because my father before was having his first family but they were separated because of some instances. We have 3 girls that is daughter of my father in his first wife and we are 2 in my mother side and we are both boys. We are now living in Km. 8 Ulas, Davao City. I finnish my primary study in Talomo Central Elementary School and my secondary in Talomo National High School. My first ambition in life when I was only a child is to become an architect because I love making an illustration of an house before but it was changed when I grow up because I realize that having an architecture course is difficult. When I was in my fourth year in high school I was still thinking of what course I will take in college. And from that time I realize in myself what if I will follow the steps of my mother. I will continue her job in teaching other people because before my mother was graduated of education and she is also a board passer but when the time that she raise me and my younger brother she doesn’t have enough time in teaching so that she decide to stop teaching and focus in caring of us. That’s why I decided to become a BS-Math student, Math because it was my favorite subject. Why I should become a teacher? Maybe now I still don’t have an ability to teach wisely other people but I didn’t refuse my ambition because the reason I studied is to learn the techniques on how to become an effective teacher. Maybe now I was only holding one quality to become a teacher and that is my determination and willingness to teach.

Difference Between Counselling and Mentoring

Mentoring are both to do with helping people to develop. Counseling helps people to develop with the emotional concern in a safe and trusting relationship. For example, one of the staff In the Restaurant that I work In was worried about his father being ill in India. He wanted to go and see his father to see how he was progressing with medical treatment. He was also worried that his father is old at the age of 85 and that he might die.He was also worried whether they had enough money in India to look after his father well. So all the staff supported him by counseling and asking him questions about his father and his family in India. We asked him whether he had enough money to send to India for his father's treatment. We asked him whether he had enough money to pay for the trip to India. We asked him which hospital his father was in and Is It a good hospital. We asked him what kind of treatment his father Is getting.We asked him whether can afford to take time off work to evils India. According professional counselors, counseling is about asking questions and not serially giving answers or making suggestions. For example, if we were to suggest that he go to India tomorrow and then find out that his father recovers fairly quickly, our friend may feel that his Journey was waste of time and when he was to come back he might blame us for him loosing two weeks pay from work and also for wasting money on the trip.That's why when counseling we don't make suggestions but let the person decide for themselves as what they should do about the problem. This makes sure that they are responsible for their decisions and consequences. Mentoring Mentoring allows a person to turn to another more experienced person on a regular basis to develop their own skills and ability In the work place.For example, when I started working in the restaurant I had no idea how to work as a waiter, so I was told by the management that I could talk to a colleague who had been a waiter for three yea rs in India and ELK. He explained to me what a good waiter does and how he treats the customer. Mentoring encourages a person to do what's right for them. For example, my mentor told me that the customer is very important, so I decided make sure that I talk to the customers about curries, about India and about News stories.I want them feel they are my friends and that I know them as a friend. For me mentoring provided regular time to talk to my mentor and discuss new ways work shift I usually have a discussion with my mentor about how I worked each right. I feel safe to discuss things to do with developing the business with my mentor rather than with my manager. My mentor and I have developed a relationship which helps me with my professional development through support and understanding. My mentor and I have become more like friends at the work.

Analyse How Moliere Uses Comedy as a Dramatic Technique in Le Tartuffe

Set in the 17th century, Moliere’s Drama, Le Tartuffe is a satirical representation of religious hypocrisy. Its comedy drives the play in a direction where the audience can not only be entertained but understand the morals which are portrayed. It is important to realise the historical context that influenced Moliere’s work of Le Tartuffe in order to understand the construction of the characters and comedy portrayed. Commedia dell’arte were a group of traveling players in Italy who specialised in improvised theatre, creating stock characters for every performance for the audience to identify with and understand their representation in a comic way. Some of these features have been known to have inspired Moliere’s construction of the plot and characters such as Clever talking Dorine shedding light on the truth. In that way, Dorine almost acts as a comedic dramatic tool to highlight the truths and themes of the play. This is particularly evident in her dialogue towards Madame Pernelle, ‘Il passe pour un saint dans votre fantaisie:/Tout son fait, croyez-moi, n’est rein qu’hypocrisie’(Moliere: 1. 1. 69) In supporting this idea, Peter Hampshire Nurse writes that Dorine has ‘brilliant wit with which she ridicules hypocrisy’ (1991:85). Although the majority of modern audience’s would find the witty servant humorous, Paula Alekson noted that ‘Moliere became a master of â€Å"Le ridicule†, so much so that in the process of making the audiences laugh, he made a multitude of serious enemies’(2007:ll 15-16). Away from the controversy that the themes created, Moliere generates much more of the comedy in terms of language, structure and pace of the play. For example in the exposition, when Madame Pernelle talks to the rest of the characters, we are able to see the desire of power towards the daughters as they try to speak by saying, ‘Mais†¦. Je crois†¦mais ma mere’ (Moliere:1. 1)but are cut off every time. Furthermore, repetition is used when Orgon says, ‘Et Tartuffe? / Le pauvre home! (Moliere:1. 4) This conveys Orgons constant obsessive nature over Tartuffe which provokes laughter. Of course when being performed the proxemics and movement of the character along with the dialogue would emphasise the comedy and complete farce that Moliere had stylized the play with. Overall, we are able to conclude that Moliere uses a variety of different techniques, and themes to make the comedy work for the play. We realise that it is not just a form of entertainment but to aid the audience in following the events in the play; to understand the central themes. Andrew Calder noted that Moliere does this in both his plays, Le Tartuffe (1664) and Don Jaun (1665). Calder states that they go ‘beyond the comic stage, and both reflect a lively interest in some of the most topical, moral and theological issues of the time. ’ (1973:153). [Wordcount:457] Bibliography Moliere, 2006. Le Tartuffe. Paris: Larousse. Alekson, Paula. 2007. Dramatic and Theatrical Style a la Moliere: Le ridicule, le naturel, and â€Å"The comic war†. [online] Available at: http://www. mccarter. org/Education/tartuffe/html/4. html Calder, Andrew. 1973. Moliere: The Theory and Practice of Comedy. London:Athlone Nurse, Peter Hampshire,1991. Moliere and The Comic Spirit. Geneve:Libraire Droz

Property and Computer Crimes Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Property and Computer Crimes - Research Paper Example This is a serious implication on the criminal justice system. False imprisonment may actually start with framing. It corrupts the justice process by trivializing the evidence it is supposed to rely on to give a ruling in the cases before it. It presents no particular harm to the defendant who may falsify the evidence to escape prosecution. On the contrary, it renders the criminal justice system impotent and not capable of instilling justice. Falsifying evidence jeopardizes the criminal justice system, in fact, more than the victim. When that happens, we are only addressing the harm done to the criminal justice system and not the person falsely imprisoned. If one of the basic functions of criminal law is to condemn any conduct that society considers blameworthy, then false imprisonment seriously implicates it (Brenner, 2010). This refers to forcefully seizing a person and taking him/her to a place where he/she is unlikely to be found with the aim of holding him/her for ransom or abducting him/her with the intention of harassing him/her either physically, mentally or sexually, taking him/her hostage and several other reasons (Legal-explanations.com 2007). According to Gilmore, kidnapping charges have serious implications on the criminal justice system. While the perpetrator may be sentenced to 15 years, this could potentially yield to a mere three to nine years. This looks like an injustice, considering the immensity of the crime committed. The criminal justice system involves the filing of charges followed by the issuance of a warrant of arrest then the transmission of an extradition request all which make the process of prosecution. However, each case determines itself. The criminal justice system does not necessarily guarantee the return of the kidnapped child and this may delay and complicate the due process of law. Perhaps this

Marketing and management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing and management - Essay Example Its customers include white collared as well as blue collared workers irrespective of their race, age and income group. Its homely atmosphere and common place ambience bestows it with a distinctive quality that makes a working family man comfortable to visit the place with his family. Its main target customers are the middle class people, both males and females aged between 18 to 25 years. Its relationship with its customers has remained unchanged through the thick and thin of time. Never has it attempted to change the profile of its target customers. The customers too have remained loyal to the company. Dunkin’ Donuts value proposition is to frame a clear idea of the type of customers it seeks to serve. An attempt to target any other type of customers will not be very effective rather it would then run the risk of losing its existing customers. The primary focus of Dunkin’ is the middle class people. Some time back Dunkin’ had termed a new sandwich as â€Å"Panini†. It was not accepted by the customers because they felt that the name was too fancy. It was then renamed as â€Å"Stuffed melt†. The company aims at broadening its customer base by providing them with products and services that they want. They came out with a campaign that involved its existing customers and clients. People shared photos along with the brand name and posted these photographs on the walls. This helped to nurture a relation between the company and its customers and drew in more coffee addicts. This measure broadened the customer base and increased brand awareness. (Fall 2006, The Bright Agency. p.10) Starbucks is another fast food restaurant that gives a tough competition to Dunkin’ Donuts. However, the two companies target different customers and have totally different requirements for their respective coffee shops. Starbucks has differentiated itself as a service provider to high end customers. Its ambience is