Is Class Still Relevant in a Modern Society?

Is Class Still Relevant in a Modern Society? The question of whether ‘class is still a relevant concept in the understanding of social divisions in contemporary Britain has two components to be analysed, firstly is class still and do social divisions exist in Britain? The results of this research indicate yes to both questions, that although class and the nature of its existence have changed since Marx, Weber and Durkheim’s eras, it is very difficult to get past the important and definite existence of class and social divisions within Britain today. Neo-Marxists, neo-Weberians as well as functionalists and other theorists analysing it from a post-modern, post industrialisation perspective support this opinion. Class itself is a concept that has been traditionally hard to define and continues to be so. As Bradley states in Fractured Identities (1996, p. 45), ‘class is everywhere and nowhere’. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. It has a shifting identity with few definite physical signs or markers to monitor. Part of the difficulty to define it categorically is that it involves many terms and viewpoints: class awareness; class consciousness; class imagery; class interest; class position; contradictory class location; false consciousness; middle class; petite bourgeoisie; proletariat; status; stratification; underclass; working class, the list is extensive. As Bilton et al (1987, p. 36) states: ‘Structures where economic relationships are primarily called class societies, and in these cases we refer to the different unequal groups as classes. There is considerable despite over the precise definition of this term, but we shall use class to refer to a group sharing a similar position in a structure of objective material inequalities, produced by a particular system of economic relations characteristic of a particular mode of production.’ (Bilton T, et al 1987, p. 36; Bradley 1996, pp. 45-6). Analysing class has historically formed a set of debates, emanating from the initial positions taken by theorists such as Marx and Weber, this debate has continued with neo-Marxists and neo-Weberians. In Class and Stratification. An Introduction to Current Debates, Rosemary Crompton (1998) suggests there is now a movement that involves a split between those who study class structure and mobility using statistical research and those who focus on class formation and consciousness by using historical or ethnographical approaches. This conflict has resulted in a stalemate of sorts where some sociologists have lost interest in the importance of social class. While anthropologists, historians and sociologists identify class as a social structure emerging from pre-history, the idea of social class entered the English dictionary approximately in the 1770s. It is valuable for this reason that any changes that may have been made since its induction should be evaluated. (Bradley 1996, pp. 45-6; Taylor, 1999, pp. 97-8). Marx saw class categories as relating to the ownership of property, and production relationship. He founded a revolutionary concept in social order – communism, in a communist state there would be no stratification. The two groups were the bourgeoisie who owned the means of production, and the proletariat the workers. He believed this relationship was based upon exploitation and conflict. Marx predicted a revolution in which the proletariat would defeat the bourgeoisie and share ownership of the factories equally between themselves. Although this did not occur in Britain, it did in Russia, in 1917. The proletariat revolted and all means of production fell into public ownership, forming a socialist state. This was close to Marxs ideological dream of communism. However, ownership despite being equal still existed and there was divisions still existed, some people had better, more highly respected, jobs than others. There was still inequality and competition. (Albrow, 1999, pp 155-9; Bilton T, et al 1987, pp 27-8). Weber was influenced by Marxs work but disagreed with his theory, he thought it was too deterministic. Being a structuralist, he believed people were shaped by the society in which they lived and capable of social action. He also disagreed with Marxs theory on stratification. Marx based his view of class structure on ownership of the means of production whilst Weber believed it was dependant on life chances. Life chances depended on wealth and skills; the upper class had the most advantageous life chances, and the poor (e.g. the unemployed, elderly and homeless), the least; economic situation, market situation, status and political party could determine class. Whist Marx split society into two distinct classes; Weber saw that social structure was more complex. The four main strata he identified were the upper class, the middle class, the working class and the poor/underclass. However, within these groups, were other, more subtle divisions, which depended on a number of variables incl uding differences in income, opportunities for upwards mobility, security of employment, language, life-style and social estimation of others. However, Weber perceived class as somewhat different, he believed that class consciousness was essentially conditional –that consciousness could occur depending upon circumstances. He acknowledged, as Marx believed, that classes and social groups were likely to experience conflict in attempts to gain status honour or class movement. (Taylor, 1999, pp. 99). Neo-Marxists come in many varying forms, but they share a common acknowledgement of the importance of gender/sex divisions. Nevertheless, it was still placed less important than class divisions under a capitalist society. Consequently, they thought the primary basis of exploitation in society was class, not gender. This implies that capitalists have more power over workers than men have over women, not an uncontroversial view. Issues of race and ethnicity were also viewed as less important than class. Functionalists take the view that social stratification is both essential to the running of society and inevitable. They believe that all social phenomena exist because they have a positive function to fulfil. Durkheim, a functionalist, described society as a living organism in which different organs with specific functions such as education, work, and government are inter-related. According to Bilton et al (1987), ‘the education system is a vehicle for developing the human resour ces of an industrial nation.’ (Bilton T, et al 1987, p. 308; Swingewood 2000, pp 137-140). In Class and Stratification, Crompton challenges the claim that class is dead and is in fact very much alive. In the vein of this belief, Goldthorpe and Wright critically examine ‘post-modern’ theories of ‘post-class’ societies, as well as the most recent contributions of quantitative sociological approaches. It is argued that despite their theoretical differences, the work of these two authors has been undergoing a process of convergence in recent years. Crompton analyses how the death of class is the contemporary increase in the event of social and material inequality. Definitional difficulties of class are only one aspect of the decision by many sociologists to question its relevance. Cromption explores social inequalities including gender and the feminisation of the middle classes, the significance of recent changes in work and employment, consumption and citizenship. (Bradley 1996, pp. 59-62; Crompton 1998, pp. 113-5) In most modern industrial societies, including Britain, the system of social stratification is fluid through generations or perhaps in their own lifetime, people can move up or down the social scale. A number of modern thinkers have tried to define what makes a particular ‘social class’. Is it accent, surroundings, occupation, income, wealth? If we simply spoke only about class as it was first defined and existed since Marx/Weber times we would not taking into account societal changes such as the increase in unemployment, health care crises, resulting in a concept of society that has always existed yet, become more prevent and occupied: the underclass. It seems that any social divisions that may exist stem from the pretext of social class and its restraints and the difficulty to move from one class to another is problematic. (Bilton T, et al 1987, 308). Thatcher’s Conservative Party did not believe in the concept of society, rather than society had no existence outside of individuals. Her party’s main aim was to reduce the role of the state in the economy, through various means such as the privatisation of British Rail, council houses and the introduction of poll tax in 1989. She advocated strong welfare reforms and created an adult Employment Training system that included full-time work done for the dole plus small top-up, based upon the a US workfare model, called the ‘Social Fund’ system. It placed one-off welfare payments for emergency needs under a local budgetary limit, and where possible changed them into loans, and rules for assessing jobseeking effort by the week, were breaches of social consensus unprecedented since the 1920s. All very strong and harsh steps only seeming to increase the already obvious class inequalities and difficulties in British society. By 1990, opposition to Thatchers polici es on local government taxation, her Governments perceived mishandling of the economy -especially the high interest rates which were undermining her core voting base within the home-owning, entrepreneurial and business sectors, as well as other factors finally made her and her party seem increasingly politically vulnerable. Her rein was over, yet her affect on British society remains strong and well-felt by general society. So it seems given all the variants and backgrounds that we have discussed that class divisions still exist and thus are still very relevant. The old saying the rich gets richer and the poor get poorer certainly was true of Thatcher’s era (Taylor, 1999, pp. 111-3; Albrow, 1999, pp 56-7; Margaret Thatcher: 2006). The Rowntree Report in 1995 exposed that unemployment rates in Britain were rising high and more rapidly than in any other industrial country – a very worrying finding, that unemployment, insecurity and deprivation were still very much prevalent in the working classes. Examining the existence of the underclass leads us to the question of whether it is a convenient label, and a powerful rhetorical label, as Marxists argue, or is it a post-industrial phenomenon? Considering that we are analysing British society post-industrialisation, this is an interesting question to ponder. Some theorists believe that it is a term that victimises and blames people and keeps them in their socio-economic spot without the opportunity or resources to move. (Fincher, R Saunders, P, 2001, p. 21; Bradley 1996, p 46; Taylor, 1999, pp. 113-5). To answer our original question of whether class can still be used as applicable concept in the understanding of social divisions in contemporary Britain, the answer is most definitely yes, but it has changed from the days of Marx and Weber and initial sociological conceptualisation. It seems that to analyse this process highlights the parts of society that may be disadvantaged through their social class or class immobility. Awareness is an important part of the process of changing and at the very least, compassion and societal responsibility. Bibliography Albrow, M, 1999, Sociology: The Basics. Roultedge, London Bilton T, Bennett, K, Jones, P, Stanworth, M, Sheard, K Webster, A 1987. Introductory Sociology. Macmillan Education Ltd, Hampshire. Bradley, H, 1996. Fractured Identities. Changing Patterns of Inequality. Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. Crompton, R, 1998. Class and Stratification. An Introduction to Current Debates, Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. Erikson, K, 1997, Sociological Visions, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Inc, USA. Fincher, R Saunders, P, 2001, Creating Unequal Futures? Rethinking Poverty, Inequality and Disadvantage. Allen and Unwin, Australia. Giddens, A 1993. Sociology, Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. Taylor, S, 1999, Sociology: Issues and Debates, Macmillan, Great Britain. Swingewood, A 2000. A Short History of Sociological Thought, 3rd Ed, St Martin’s Press, New York. Psychological/Sociological Paradigms, retrieved 7th April 2006, from:Â  http://webpages.marshall.edu/~carter12/eda705a5.htm. Wikipedia, April 2006, Margreat Thatcher, retrieved 11th April 2006, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher

Relationship Between Photography Art And Psychology Photography Essay

Relationship Between Photography Art And Psychology Photography Essay I believe that great art and photography can be produced as a result of psychic energy created from repressed drives and instincts being effectively sublimated into a creative activity. I also believe that a great deal of art created is a result and expression of what Freud referred to as the Death Drive. Furthermore I believe that increased levels of psychic energy and tension can be linked to the production of great art. Freuds death drive theory was first revealed in his 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Feud formulated this theory after working closely with patients suffering from severe trauma. Throughout the First World War Freud spent a great deal of time working with and observing the behaviour of the soldiers who had returned from the battlefields and trenches. Many of these soldiers were suffering from Traumatic War Neuroses (which is now referred to as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder). Freud observed that the soldiers often had a tendency to dream, obsess, mentally repeat and in some severe cases re-enact the traumatic events they had witnessed. This obsessive attachment to the trauma seemed to contradict Frauds previous essay The Pleasure Principle which suggests that the individual is constantly seeking to maximize his or her own pleasure. Freud suggested that the mind is split into three distinctive groups. Firstly we have the conscious, which is home to those thoughts and percepti ons of which a person is fully aware. Secondly we have the pre-conscious, which is where we store our knowledge and memories and thirdly we have the unconscious, which is material that cannot be made available voluntarily such as fears, unacceptable sexual desires, irrational wishes, shameful experiences, selfish needs, immoral urges and violent motives. The three layers of personality are often portrayed as a mental iceberg, which is used to illustrate the incredible size of the unconscious. It is important to understand that according to Freud the death drive is part the id. The id is the most instinctive and primitive part of a persons personality and is the system we come equipped with at birth. According to Freuds essay The Pleasure Principle the id does not know right from wrong, it has no perception of morals, values or standards it simply seeks to maximise its own pleasure. The ego begins to develop after birth as the child begins to interact with their environment. The ego operates on the reality principle, which is survival orientated and prevents the person from doing anything that is overly detrimental. The super ego develops later as a result of societys values, morals and standards being passed onto the child through interaction with other people and adults. The super ego is the part of the personality that strives for perfection and works in contradiction to the id. Because the id and super ego are so dramatically opposed it falls on the ego to act as the m iddleman. The ego must satisfy the ids primitive impulses without offending the super egos moral character whilst also taking into consideration the reality of the situation. Human beings are torn between two opposing instinctive drives. On the one hand we have the Eros (the life drive). The Eros is a creative drive that promotes and supports harmony, reproduction, sexual connection and preservation of both the self and the species. On the other hand we have the Thanatos (Death Drive). The Death Drive is self-destructive and instinctively seeks aggression, compulsion, repetition and obliteration. Freud believed that the Death Drive is a persons drive towards death and the wish to return to an inanimate state. There are more socially acceptable ways of expressing the creative and sexual needs of the Eros without offending the moralistic super ego. It is the Death Drives destructive and aggressive characteristics that are more difficult to express. This could result in mindless aggression, masochism and hate. Because the ego has such a difficult time satisfying the impulses of both the id and the super ego it uses tools often referred to as Ego Defence Mechanisms to reduce anxiety and protect self-esteem. These defence mechanisms include denial, displacement, intellectualization, projection, reaction formation, rationalisation, regression, sublimation and suppression. The ego defence mechanisms are used to push something that causes you anxiety into the unconscious. Freud believed that any psychic energy that is repressed would later have to emerge in one way or another. Freud stated that the psyche works to get rid of this energy in three ways. The first is catharsis, which will discharge the psychic energy through unconscious impulses such as laughter and crying. Sublimation is the second method that the psyche uses to channel the psychic energy. Sublimation converts the instincts and impulses to allow the person to express them in a way that is acceptable to the super ego write books, paint pictures, build bridges, do research, learn mathematical equations and so on (Nye 1999 pg 14) .If you cannot sublimate enough it can seriously affect your mental health. The displacement of the suppressed instincts then takes the form of the third method, which is neuroses. The neurosis is revealed in the form of symptoms. These symptoms work to reduce the psychic tension but are also detrimental to the person. These symptoms could manifest themselves in many forms such as depression, phobias, obsessions, denial and psychosis. This is why art is often used as an alternate therapy. The psychic tension is encouraged to manifest itself into something creative rather than letting it quietly fester into symptoms. Of the three defence mechanisms sublimation is the one that interests me the most. Sublimation is the mechanism that Freud believed could offer an overall explanation for artistic talent and the production of great art Since artistic talent and capacity are intimately connected with sublimation we must admit that the nature of the artistic function is also inaccessible to us along psychoanalytic lines (Clark 1965 pg165). Freuds essay on Leonardo da Vinci illustrates his theory regarding sublimation and its connection to artistic creativeness and genius. It is popularly believed that Leonardo da Vinci was homosexually inclined. He never married and was in fact charged with the act of sodomy twice in 1476 but was later released and the case dropped due to a lack of witnesses. Although anonymously accused of the act many of Leonardos contemporaries also believed him to be homosexual, Freud also believed this. It is the Oedipus complex that Freud believed could explain Leonardos homosexual inclinations. According to the Oedipus complex small children whilst in the Oedipal phase of libidinal and ego development (between the ages of three and five) harbour unconscious drives and feelings which centre around the complete possession of the parent of the opposite sex, in the case of a male child the mother would become the subject of this fixation. The child would then be in direct competition for the mothers affection with the father who at this point according to the child has become an intruder in the relationship. This would at first lead to conflict but the child soon realises that the father is bigger and in a position of authority. As the child then begins to recognise that the mother loves the father he wants to emulate his fathers masculine traits and behaviour in order to become more like him to earn favour with his mother. It is interesting that the Oedipus complex takes it name from the Greek mythological charter Oedipus who kills his father and marries his mother. Freuds views on this character were sympathetic he stated; His destiny moves us only because it might have been ours because the oracle laid the same curse upon us before our birth as upon him. It is the fate of all of us, perhaps, to direct our first sexual impulses towards our mother and our first hatred and our first murderous wish against our father (Freud 1889 p296) Leonardo was an illegitimate child, later adopted by his father and brought up in his fathers household. There is no historical record which indicates what kind of relationship Leonardo may have had with his mother or his step mother, or which tells us what kind of people they were. Nor is it known at what age Leonardo was removed from his mother to be brought up by his step mother and father (Storr 1999 pg75/76) According to Freuds theory regarding the Oedipus complex if Leonardo did not have a sufficient mother figure he would have had no need to emulate his fathers masculine traits and behaviour. This is what led Freud to conclude that Leonardo was homosexual. Being homosexual, and not being able to express himself openly would have been a great cause of stress and anxiety for Leonardo. This stress and anxiety was repressed into his unconscious and could have ultimately led to mental heath symptoms had he not been able to sublimate it so effectively. Freud believed that Leonardo was sublimating his sexuality into something more appropriate. The suppressed drives and instincts of Leonardos id were being sublimated through his creativity so effectively that he was able to create some of the worlds most amazing art works and inventions. The irony of Freuds theory is that if Leonardo had been allowed to be openly gay he would not have created this work. So what characteristics reveal the presence of the death drive and when is the death drive recognizable in art? I believe that the death drive can be observed in the work of many great artist and photographers. Common physical manifestations of the death drive in art include such bleak and morbid imagery as the grim reaper, skulls, blood, crows and hooded figures, but the manifestation does not always appear in such a literal way. The death drive is often expressed in works of art through subliminal and symbolic methods. Freud interpreted art in a similar way to how he interpreted dreams It was natural that he should apply the same technique of interpretation to works of art as he did to dreams, phantasies and neurotic symptoms. Just like dreams Freud believed that art is an expression of unconscious. The Death Drive cannot always manifest itself overtly in art. Its representation is often symbolic as the super ego would be damaged by anything that society deems a taboo or unacceptab le. Although Freuds theory regarding the interpretation of dreams was not an aesthetic one, I believe that the connection between what a person dreams and what is expressed by the subconscious during the process of sublimating psychic energy into a creative form draws many similarities and could indeed be analyzed in a similar way. Although the Freudian analysis of dreams focuses more on how the subconscious deals with and associates with our memories and emotions I think the same analysis can be used to look at how our subconscious deals with and expresses these same memories and emotions physically. One of the most obvious examples of an artist that depicts the death drive in his artwork is Damian Hirst. Hirst who has been described by a London art critics as the hooligan genius of British art seems to have an unhealthy obsession with death, his work is famously dark and notoriously unpleasant and morbid. Death, destruction and imagery related or connected to mortality are reoccurring themes in a great deal of Hirsts work, so much so that his work is often instantly identifiable purely from its subject matter. Hirst became a household name after exhibiting a series of dead animals that included a fourteen-foot tiger shark a sheep and a cow that were all preserved in a specially created formaldehyde solution. The title of the exhibition The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living seems to suggests that you cannot witness or experience your own death, an interesting title given the contents and the nature of the exhibition. Hirsts work is an examination of the processes of life and death: the ironies, falsehoods and desires that we mobilize to negotiate our own alienation and mortality. By preserving and then exhibiting these dead animals Hirst forces his audience to confront death head on. In my eyes this shocking tactic sums up exactly how the death drive can express itself in art . The death drive Hirst is also famous for creating a life size human skull cast in platinum titled For the Love of God. The skull is encased in 8601 diamonds and is currently the most expensive piece of art ever created. The use of a real human skull -which according to Hirst was purchased in Islington emphasises his fixation with mortality. The skull, which to many is regarded as the ultimate sign of death could be interpreted as an obvious incarnation of Hirsts own death drive. When interviewed by the Guardian newspaper regarding his luxurious crystal skull Hirst was quoted I just want to celebrate life by saying to hell with death, Death is such a key aspect of Hirsts work but so to is the controversy that surrounds it. Not only is Hirsts work an artistic representation of the themes and imagery often associated with the death drive but I believe that it is also a direct manifestation of the psychic energy created by the death drive. This energy is being sublimated into a creative art form. The work of Hirst would seem, if anything to be the artistic representation of someone with a wildly overactive active death drive, if this is true what has caused this? Looking into Hirsts childhood and early life there are several interesting events that could explain his need to sublimate psychic energy into other activities. Sigmund Freud believed that by viewing and analyzing a piece of art in a way similar to analyzing dreams he could gain an incite into the unconscious drives and instincts that helped create them. what he did with varying success, was to discover in the work of art evidence of the artists presumed infantile conflicts Hirsts parents separated when he was still very young, as a result his mother struggled to deal with his wild and often criminal behavior. Hirsts relationship with his mother became ever more strained as she failed to tolerate his acts of rebellion. The separation of his parents at the age of twelve would have been a great cause for stress and anxiety. A stress that could have easily developed into a mental illness had he not been able to sublimate this psychic energy so successfully through his works of art. The breakdown in the relationship between Hirst and his mother would also have been cause of anxiety. It is perhaps due to this anxiety that he was able to achieve and be so successful in later life. Hirst struggled as an artist throughout the first 23 years of his life, He persisted despite many complications and rejections, first at school and then sixth form where he was finally admitted only after his art teacher pleaded passionately with the staff begging them to give him a place. After two years spent in sixth form he left with an E grade A-Level in Art. After sixth form Hirst was then turned down and refused admission to the Leeds College of Art and Design but eventually managed to gain admission after he submitted a successful application. After his time at college Hirst worked for two years on various building sites before applying for a place to study Fine Art at Goldsmiths University in London. Again Hirst was initially refused admission but later reapplied and was granted a place. The struggle of Hirst to succeed in his artistic career in itself would be a great cause of stress and negative tension. Could this tension and psychic energy be the underlying cause of his Hirsts confrontation with death Artists have always been fascinated with death. The artist almost instinctively seeks to address and confront death. This desire to seek out and face death is reflected in the photographic work of Erik Van Der Weijde. Weijde is a professional self-publishing photographer whose work is usually architecture related and whose work is often released in intricately created limited editions. Weijdes work based in Germany looks at buildings and architecture built and used by the Nazis between 1943 and 1945. The project titled Siedlung which translates as neighborhood or settlement is a journey that focuses on houses built by the Nazis for the German working class NSDAP members. The creation of these houses was a powerful propaganda tool for the Nazi party, which artificially removed people from unemployment and enforced a deliberate sense of unity and uniformity. The first thing that I notice about these images is how cold and sterile they appear. The houses are well kept but there is no sign of life. There are no people in the streets, no visible animals. There is not even a single bird visible in the sky. This bizarre deadpan aesthetic is obviously an expression of Weijdes death drive and his deliberately simple images create a surreal soberness that unsettles the viewer. The photographs themselves whilst working well as a set do not follow any traditional systems or ru les regarding traditional architectural photography. The images have a candid feel to them, the effect of which is a sinister voyeuristic overtone that adds to the uncomfortable image subjects. Weijdes other photographic projects include a set of photographs taken at a location where Marc Dutroux used to go skating before he started kidnapping girls This project is very similar to his project about Nazi architecture. The project simply titled Ice-skating lanes consists of a collection of images taken outside a skating rink. Similarly to the Nazi project the images show no evidence or make any reference to the events that took place. Perhaps taken out of context these images would not be so cold and sobering. Both of these projects have been shot within the last couple of years Ice-skating lanes is dated 2006 and Third Reich 2007. Weijde has decided to shoot the majority of the images in these projects not in colour but in black and white. I feel that the black and white images are much more effective and evoke a much stronger sense of dread. Death is a state of minimalism and this deliberate decision to remove colour from the images gives them an archival feel, which if anything strengthens the morbidly unsettling atmosphere captured in the photographs. The production or creation of an archive reflects the death drives compulsive need for repetition. Weijdes images are so simple in fact that they gain a surreal, otherworldly characteristic. The subject of Weijdes work is so frequently morbid that it is impossible to ignore his obvious fascination with death nor is it possible to ignore his deliberate pursuit and confrontation of death. I believe that Weijde is a true example of how the d eath drive can inspire art or photography. Weijdes interest lies purely in the fascination he has regarding the locations of these terrible incidents, he is not financially motivated nor does he seek controversy. The fascination of documenting death and destruction does not end with Eric Van Der Weijde. Photographers from all over the world share a similar bond with death, a bond draws them to scenes of unimaginable carnage. Enrique Metinides is known for his macabre depictions of life in Mexico City. Having photographed his first dead body before the age of twelve, Metinides developed an obsession with documenting the recently deceased, for years he slept with his radio tuned into the frequencies of various emergency services such as the police, fire brigade and ambulance, desperately trying to eavesdrop and listen in on breaking news on disasters and tragic events that was being relayed from call centers to the emergency services. Sleeping in his clothes and listening long into the night Metinides was always prepared to leave his house at a moments notice in order to follow a scoop. Metinides employed a series of unconventional methods to ensure that he was always first on scene, these methods included hanging around outside the various police stations and morgues and volunteering with the Red Cross so that he could arrive on scene with ambulances and paramedics, by doing this he was able to document the events without any interference from the public or police. The length that Metinides went to in order to ensure his place at the front of each incident illustrates his commitment and dedication to his work, a dedication that is shared by many artists and photographers. It is possible that this energetic drive was fuelled by Metinidess own death drive the sublimation of which resulted in the obsessive habits and behavior he developed in order to successfully pursue his work. Metinidess preparations often gave him the edge over the press and other reporters allowing him to be first on the scene of each disaster, armed with his trusted camera he documented each gru esome and bloody incident. During his career Metinides worked for the Nota Roja (bloody news). Whilst working for the bloody news Metinides built a morbid portfolio of suicide jumpers, decapitated bodies, street stabbings, crime scenes, accidental electrocutions, car wrecks, airplane crashes, exploding gas tanks, train derailments and other disasters. Metinidess photography is unpleasantly tragic; he depicts these scenes of carnage in such a stark and unforgiving way. The images differ considerably from the archival styled work of Eric Van Der Weijde in both content and style. Eric Van Der Weijdes images exhibit the death drive in a more subtle and symbolic way that at first glance could easily be missed, whereas the work of Metinides expresses the death drive in a much more aggressive way. This is partly because the work of Eric Van Der Weijde is inspired by acts from the past concentrating on documenting them in the present whereas Metinidess work focuses on the chaos, unpredictable and spontaneous nature of life and death. The subject matter of Metinidess work is so brutally shocking that it almost seems unreal. The images are almost driven to the point of abstraction as the audience is forced to confront the death that Metinides has photographed. These images arent cheap magazine photoplays. The deaths and disasters are real. So why was Metinides so obsessed with confronting death? What was it that he sought to document? The underlying cause of Metinidess build up of psychic energy which lead to the necessity of sublimation was not a result of repressed sexual as it had been with Leonardo Da Vinci, nor was it the result of a broken home or childhood conflicts with his mother. I believe that Metinidess entire career developed as a result of the first dead body he encountered as a child. The son of a popular restaurant owner young Metinides befriended the policemen and women that would eat there. They invited him to the station where he encountered his first corpse; the corpse had been laid on a track and beheaded by a train This scene took the fear out of me, so I could continue to look at these kinds of images for the next fifty years From then on Metinides used his box camera to take and collect pictures of accidents. Now this of course is not the usual behavior of a teenage boy and I believe could be the route of his lifetime fascination with the dead. Other interesting facts known about Metinides are that he is a passionate collector of various objects, particularly model ambulances and police cars which he owns over 4000 of. Excessive collecting is often linked to the death drive as the death drive seeks repetition. Metinides is also an obsessive archivist who even till this day compulsively catalogues video footage of live accidents from television for a growing personal archive again this behavior could be argued to be the result of the death drive but interestingly could also be explained by the Eros, the life drive that instinctively seeks to preserve and create. In an interesting interview with Metinides conducted by VMAGAZINE he tells of an incident where a man attempted to jump from the top of the Torero Stadium building because, he said he wanted to feel what death felt like. Metinidess work cannot visually convey what death feels like but it does however illustrate what death feels like to those around it. Personally I believe that Metinides work goes way beyond even the most compelling of photojournalism. When viewing Metinidess work I feel myself drawn into his images. I feel like I am watching the events from a safe distance but then the realization dawns that I am not alone. In many of Metinidess images large crowds of people have gathered around the scene of the accident and as I stare transfixed on the limp, lifeless body of a child or the cold dead face of a motor accident victim I slowly begin to pan out and notice the crowds of people not looking at the wreckage and chaos, instead there gaze is directly at me. People in the crowds are often looking straight into the lens of Metinidess camera it makes us, as the audience feel uncomfortable as there eyes meet with our own but at the same time this awkward eye contact completes the cycle of voyeurism. In a similar fashion to Damian Hirst Metinidess work exploits death. His whole career has been built around the sad and unfortunate events that ended with a person losing their live. It seems that being able to face death, whether morally right or not can be very profitable business. Death is a constant theme in the history of art and photography, I believe that the popularity of the subject lies in the audiences desire to understand and confront their own mortality. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..work shows how fragile we are and how suddenly life can be taken away from us. The fact that these images remain so admired and that Metinides is still regarded as Mexicos most popular newspaper photographer suggests that the obsession with death lies not just with the artist or the photographer but also with the audience. Perhaps the need for an artist to confront or portray death is not only a response to their own death drive but also to the death drive of their audience. I believe that by viewing work by artists such as Metinides the audience is able to sublimate some of their own negative energy. Art has long been known for its therapeutic properties Conclusion>>> Psychic energy is what fuels a persons actions. Art is a direct sublimation of this psychic energy. If you are well balanced and mentally well rounded you will have less of this psychic energy to draw from. So basically the more screwed up and mentally unstable you are the more psychic energy you have to express in your artwork. This is why many great artists are often on the edge/ verge of a mental break down.

Making Iowa State University a Better Place for International Students :: Education Learning Foreign Students Essays

Making Iowa State University a Better Place for International Students English is a second language for most people outside of the United States of America. In Hong Kong for example, the Chinese start to learn English in kindergarten. Chinese children learn the spelling and the grammar of the English language but of course one must live in the culture to be fully educated of the language. There are many slang words and new vocabulary that are not taught in the schools however. Winnie Yue, a freshman at Iowa State University, found this out fairly quickly after going to her first class. She has taken all of her courses at Iowa State University before in Hong Kong, but the language barrier is providing her with many difficulties. She mentions how the professors use these unfamiliar words not realizing that non-Americans may not know what they mean. These days you will see Winnie carrying a dictionary to every one of her classes. Miss Yue feels that if she had other Chinese students that could help her with her understanding of these words she would have an easier time with her courses and her homework. She feels Iowa State University should help her with her problem. I propose that Iowa State University should establish a team of workers who will supply international students with names of other international students of the same culture, a set time to socialize, and a set place to gather. This new program will help them with their homesickness as well as helping them with the language barrier and also the culture change. Iowa State already has an organization established that is a voluntary program, which matches international students with Americans. This program is called the Conversational English Program, but it needs to be improved drastically. In this program, American volunteers are supposed to have conversations about the American culture and life in general. It is supposed to help international students with the culture change and their English speaking skills. The program however is not widely used. The problem may be due to the fact that a student must find this organization on their own. Iowa State's new program would eliminate this situation by having the student already set up with the other international student before their first classes start. The Conversational English Program is, in my opinion, a good start to what should be a widely used establishment.

Using Technology for Research and Learning in the Field of Education Es

Using Technology for Research and Learning in the Field of Education In the last decade technology has expanded greatly. Now, we can order movie tickets, make reservations, and even listen to music without ever leaving the comfort of our own homes. But technology tools are not only used for entertainment purposes. These tools also help us learn and explore new things. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effectiveness of technology tools as they apply to learning and research within education. Tools for Teaching and Learning The computer is a very important tool used in education. â€Å"During the past three decades, computers have become the most talked about, written about, and ubiquitous machines ever to be imposed upon mankind.†( Rockart, 1995, p. 55). The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) is said to be the first computer. It was a â€Å"huge machine having thousands of vacuum tubes and consuming vast amounts of electrical power.† ( Merrill, 1996, p.54). By the early 1970’s, the regular computer was invented. Around the same time, something called the Internet emerged. The Internet is a worldwide network. It connects LAN’s, WAN’s, and other regional networks from all over the world together into one global network. Recently, the Internet has become very popular. It was predicted in 1996 that by the year 2000, most universities and many homes would have Internet connections. (Merrill, 1996). This prediction was correct. By linking a computer to t he Internet, one can gain access to a wide variety of additional resources and services. One can send e-mail, access electronic boards, and obtain a huge amount of information from different databases. Using e-mail greatly benefits students. With access t... ...ing. Retrieved October 8, 2001 from: http://ccaat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/teachdemo/teachdemo.html. Questia launches student research and paper-writing service. (2001). Information Today, 18, 34. Retrieved October 7, 2001 from Academic Search Premier Rockart, J. F., & Morton, M. S. (1995). Computers and the Learning Process in Higher Education. Berkeley, CA: McGraw- Hill. Scott, E. (2001). Using the internet, online services, and CD-ROMS for writing research and term papers. Book Report, 19, 80. Retrieved October 7, 2001 from Academic Search Premier. Schank, R.C., & Cleary, C. (1995). Engines for Education. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Wilkes, D. (2001). Turning Math into a Positive Experience via Tech Tools. Media & Methods, 37, 185-204. Retrieved September 29, 2001 from Academic Search Premier.

Stress and Anger Essay -- Stress Anger Psychology Essays

Stress and Anger Stress and Anger have always been related with each other. There have been countless studies, even more theories, about stress and anger and how they relate. But, no matter how many studies are conducted, there will always be the questions about whether or not stress and anger are related. But, I am here to provide the facts on both stress and anger, and then allow you, as the reader, to determine the relationship, because all-in-all, I feel that stress and anger can and cant be related, depending on the circumstance. If psychologists completely understood how stress and fears developed, we would know how to produce and reduce a phobia or an anxiety state. We don't. There seems to be a wide variety of life experiences which result in some form of stress, fear, anxiety, or psychosomatic illness. It would be convenient if life were simpler but it isn't. Perhaps a summary will help you review the ways you might become stressed and anxious Changes, such as sudden trauma, several big crises, or many small daily hassles, cause stress. Intense stress years earlier, especially in childhood, can predispose us to over-react to current stress. Events, such as barriers and conflicts that prevent the changes and goals we want, create stress. Having little control over our lives, e.g. being "on the assembly line" instead of the boss, contrary to popular belief, often increases stress and illness. Many environmental factors, including excessive or impossible demands, noise, boring or lonely work, stupid rules, unpleasant people, etc., cause stress. Conflicts in our interpersonal relationships cause stress directly and can eventually cause anxieties and emotional disorders. The human body has different ways of responding to stress; one quick responding nerve-hormonal system involving adrenaline, another long-lasting system involving cortisol, and perhaps others. These systems not only determine the intensity of our anxiety reactions but also our attitudes, energy level, depression, and physical health after the stressful events are over. As individuals, our nervous systems differ; however, according to Richard Dienstbier at the University of Nebraska, we may be able to modify our unique physiological reactions by learning coping skills. The genetic, constitutional, and intrauterine factors influence stress. Some of us may have been born "nerv... ...nd anti-social behavior. It is also known that a viral infection, called rabies, causes violent behavior. About 90% of women report being irritable before menstruation. Furthermore, 50% of all crimes by women in prison occurred during their menstrual period or premenstrual period. By chance only 29% of crimes would have occurred during those eight days. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) increases during the premenstrual period and it causes irritability. In all of these possibilities--instinct, heredity, hormones, or brain dysfunction--the aggression occurs without apparent provocation from the environment (although there is almost always a "target"). According to some of these theories, the need or urge to be aggressive is boiling within each of us and seeks opportunities to express itself. There is also clear evidence that alcohol consumption and hotter temperatures release aggression, but no one thinks there is something in alcohol or heat that generates meanness. The socialization process, i.e. becoming a mature person, involves taming these destructive, savage, self-serving urges that probably helped us humans survive one million years ago but threatens our survival today.

Changes in the Marketing Environment Essay

In recent times, from an economic environment perspective, people are getting more affluent, even in third world countries like Vietnam, the younger generation are more interested in spending on the latest fashion and gadgets, like iPods. Phone marketers might want to include phone designs which allow for self-expression, hence catering to the younger people seeking to carve out their own identity. For example, young girls in Japan like to stick many shiny crystals on their phones as they see it as a form of beautiful art. Phone marketers can cash in on this growing trend by offering phones which have suitable surfaces for crystal gluing, and they might want to also consider having a tie-up with a suitable bead company in order to have a package selling the crystals together with the phones. An important marketing strategy in catering to the changing political environment would be cause-marketing. It is by cause-marketing that phone marketers can reassure the public that they are soc ially responsible, even in the midst of increasing unethical behaviour existing in society. Cause marketing might be the determining factor which might set a phone or a brand of phones apart, especially if customers have the same perception of 2 brands of phones and are undecided which to choose. Phone marketers can follow Motorola’s lead whereby they produced a red â€Å"razr† phone to promote awareness of aids, which was highly successful. Another important marketing strategy is for the marketer to observe the changing demographic forces and decide which target group they can focus on in order to make the most profits. Quite a few countries in the world are facing an aging population, like Japan, China and Singapore. This might be a good target market to go into, by manufacturing phones which are suited for older people like by having larger screens and more user-friendly buttons. Technological forces are constantly changing, and a good marketer would be able to foresee what kinds of functions people might want in their phones. Marketers might want to research about what form of entertainment is capturing people and cater to these needs. Sony Ericsson realised that music was slowly becoming an integral part of people’s lives, no matter what age and produced the walkman phone series which was highly popular. The path to success and its maintenance depends very much on a phone marketer’s resellers and suppliers, hence phone marketers should engage in tie-ups with them both. A phone marketer’s resellers normally consist of telecommunications companies.  Marketers can offer to sell their phones at a lower price to these companies, and in exchange, persuade them to offer more attractive or cheaper line subscription packages when customers purchase the phones of the marketers’. Marketers should constantly source for more efficient and cheaper suppliers and sign a long-term contract with them. Marketers might also want to consider suppliers based in China or India, as labour in such countries is known to be one of the cheapest, yet efficient, in the world. Lastly, marketers should always keep an eye out for competition and continually check on other phone marketers’ strategies and phone pricing. Marketers should also be aware that competition not only lies with other phone marketers, but in any company that has to do with providing entertainment or convenience to people. For example, Apple is not a phone manufacturer, but it is beginning to slowly capture the phone market due to its iPhone. Phone marketers might want to produce phones which have the capability to rival such phones, or if they are unable to do so run a major advertisement campaign to promote their phones against other rival phones, so as to hopefully mould the public’s thinking into their liking. Alternatively, phone marketers can also liaise with major entertainment companies like Apple or Creative to work together to produce quality phones or gadgets to capture a major share of the phone market.

Booker T Washington A Representative of the Black Population

It is considered general knowledge that slavery was one of the biggest struggles this nation faced. However, many forget that the strife did not end when slavery was abolished. Reconstruction laid a heavy hand on this country and nearly tore it apart. Booker T. Washington explains this concept in his famous tree analogy. â€Å"Before our freedom, a giant tree was growing in the garden [slavery], which all considered injurious to the progress of the whole nation. The work to be done was direct and simple-destroy the hurtful tree. The work before us now is not the destruction of a tree, but the growing of one. Slavery presented a problem of destruction; freedom presents one of construction. This requires time, patience, preparation of the soil, watering, pruning, and most careful nursing† (Washington, 50). Booker T. Washington became a representative of the black population during this turbulent time. However, he was met with much criticism due to his controversial ideas and public speeches. The white citizenry largely appreciated his pacifying tone, but many of the blacks were irritated by the inactive agendum Washington was suggesting. Some of Booker T. Washington†s ideas were practical and worthwhile, however some of his theories contained many contradictions and fallacies. I agree with his ideology to a point, but at certain times, I feel that he is too much of a pacifist. Washington stressed repeatedly in his speeches the importance of an industrial education. His own contribution to this was the Tuskagee Institute. It taught young blacks a trade that was practical, so they would be able to easily find a job, and begin earning income. Washington†s thought was that an industrial education was far more important than a liberal education. He believed that a liberal education was a waste of time, because there weren†t any immediate benefits, or instantaneous wage earning possibilities. Washington†s point was that the blacks needed money at once, so they should excel at what they already know. African Americans already had the skills they learned from slavery, which was mostly farming and agriculture. He thought that they should utilize that knowledge in the work force. â€Å"†¦let the Negro begin right where he is by putting the greatest amount of intelligence, of skill, and dignity into the occupations by which he is surrounded† (Washington 42). Many blacks did not like that suggestion, because they felt that they had been trapped in the agriculture business because of slavery, and they did not want to go back to that way of life. It would mean no change in labor and little chance that the white employer would treat them any better than they had in the past. The ex-slaves wanted experiences in life that they never before had the opportunity to have. They wanted a liberal education, because it had been denied to them in the past. They wanted to rise out of working the fields. Washington believed in sticking to one thing and excelling at it. He thought that blacks should learn a trade and become the best at it, so there is no room for discrimination. â€Å"Whenever in the South, for example, the Negro is the carpenter, let him realize that he cannot remain the carpenter unless people are sure that no one can excel him as a carpenter. This black carpenter should strive in every way possible to keep himself abreast of the best woodwork done in the world. He should be constantly studying the best journals and books bearing on carpentry. He should watch for every improvement in his line† (Washington 42). Personally, I think that B.T. Washington was right in aspiring to use the skills one already had, however I don†t think it is right to deny anyone the chance of stepping up and bettering themselves. Washington claims this change will happen, but it will occur gradually. â€Å"The second or third generation of this black man†s family need not be carpenters, but can aspire successfully to something higher because the foundation has been laid† (Washington 43). However, the black man, at this time, did not want gradual change. They wanted the change they deserved, and they wanted it right away. In my opinion, Washington†s idea to learn a trade to have an immeidate source of income is a good one. It is practical and promotes a way for blacks to meet financial needs. Nonetheless, it is important to have a well-rounded education if the change for bigger and better places is to ever take place. Another problem with Washington†s dogma, is that he is lumping all black people into one category. He is assuming that all of the ex-slaves will not mind going back to the same labor force they were in pre-abolishment. That is untrue. Many African-Americans at this time had untapped interests that they wanted to pursue. Many would actually be more talented in other fields. When slavery was abolished, this implied freedom for blacks. Freedom is all about the ability to choose. In taking choices away from the ex-slaves, Washington is stifling independence. As the representative man of his time, Booker T. Washington made several public speeches. In these orations, it was quite evident that he was aspiring to be as diplomatic as possible. He sought to keep the whites on his side, even amongst the most racially controversial issues. In regarding crime, he not only chastised white people for the heinous hate crimes that were rampant, but he also admonished the black people for their criminal acts. â€Å"†¦idleness and crime should cease, and that no excuse be given the world to label any large proportion of the race [blacks] as idlers and criminals†¦bring to punishment those who commit crime, when proper legal procedure is sure†¦we consider no legal punishment to severe for the wretch of any race who attempts to outrage a woman [lynching]. The lesson for the other portion of the nation to learn is that†¦the same laws should be made to apply to the Negro and the white man whether it relates to citizenship, the protection of property, the right to labor, or the protection of human life† (Washington 49). The manner in which Washington addressed the mixed crowd was filled with diplomacy, and therefore, did not anger the white citizens. Booker T. Washington realized that this was intelligent, because he knew that if he aroused the whites, the black population would have a much more difficult time in their rise through reconstruction. During all his addresses to the public, B. T. Washington stressed economics. He did this to speak to the white population about racial equality in terms that they thought would benefit the entire nation. Racial equality would lead to a better economy, and since the South was almost destitute after the civil war, the Southern whites were willing to listen to anything that would help the financial situation. â€Å"It is not only the duty of the Negro to thus put himself in possession, but it is also the plainest duty of the white man†¦No state can have the highest civilization and prosperity with one-third of its population down. This one-third will prove a constant millstone about the neck of the other two-thirds† (Washington 43). Economics, Washington also said, would bring about political and racial equality. He argued that once African-Americans obtained money, property, and/or other tangible goods, they would be given more respect, and hence, equality. â€Å"†¦when he [the black man] has paid the cost-paid the price of his freedom-it will appear in the beautiful, well-kept home, In the increasing bank account, in the farm†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Washington 42). I don†t agree with B.T.W.†s theory on this. Just because one has material commodities, this does not guarantee them respect or equality of any kind. The white southerners were brought up on racist beliefs. A black man†s wealth will not change the white bigot†s opinion. If anything, the whites will just begin to resent the black man. Moving up financially, was a good idea for the black race, as long as they protested equality simultaneously, because equality would not just appear along with financial stability. Agitation was not one of Washington†s endeavors. He believed that blacks should not provoke the white populace. He states in one of his articles, â€Å"Vastly more courage is often shown in one†s ability to suffer in silence†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Washington 48). This enraged many blacks. They had already been ‘suffering in silence† through the endless years of slavery. Washington averred that rather than agitation, the black move upward should be a constant struggle. â€Å"The wisest among my race understand that the agitation of questions of social equality, is the extremest folly, and that progress in the enjoyment of all the privileges that will come to us must be the result of sever and constant struggle rather than of artificial forcing† (Washington 140). Washington needed to realize that no political changes would come about without the black population demanding them. If the African-Americans did not command civil rights, the whites would never have bothered to change their ways. In this situation, speaking out is necessary.